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Medicine and Health Care in Ancient Mesopotamia, 2002.
An analysis of health care systems, medicine and civil medical liability in Ancient Mesopotamia.
1,845 words (approx. 7.4 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 59.95
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Abstract
An examination of the health and medical systems of Ancient Mesopotamia. The concept of sickness is defined for this time period and those who treated the sick, the medical practitioners, are discussed. The paper also looks at the monetary payment structure for medical services and the subsequent penalty structure if payment was not made.
From the Paper
"During the past century, the rise of modern medicine and biotechnology has been astronomical. Scientists have engineered artificial limbs and organs, developed vaccines for numerous diseases, discovered preventative medical strategies, and created procedures to deal with most known ailments. Specialists have arisen in many fields and a complex payment structure involving insurance and HMOs has been established in modern times. Given this, it is interesting to notice that several of these same features were present in the medical world of ancient Mesopotamia. Of course, the Mesopotamians did not have the levels of understanding that exist today, but it appears that their knowledge was much greater than one would initially assume."
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Neanderthal Subsistence Patterns, 2001.
A discussion of new isotopic evidence along with other new data which is leading the way in painting a new picture of the Neanderthal man and his subsistence patterns.
4,025 words (approx. 16.1 pages), 7 sources, APA, $ 108.95
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Abstract
This paper presents detailed descriptions of previous evidence and theory for neanderthal subsistence pattern of a scavenger plus an attempt to topple that theory in light of the new evidence at hand. This new evidence includes isotopic data that suggest a meat only diet and other studies that suggest wide spread active hunting through wear patterns on tools. These point to a subsistence pattern of a top level predator not that of a lowly scavenger.
From the Paper
"Of any ancient fossil hominid it?s a hands down, no contest winner for the prize of best known and understood1. Say ?Neanderthal?, and archaeologist and laymen alike would not have to work hard to conjure up the classical short stocky body frame, the indicative brow ridge and the protruding facial features of the Neanderthal people. But it is not all that simple, while we may have a plethora of faunal and lithic remains including those of the skeleton, the pictures of life style, diet, culture, and land use for example that these paint are not as complete as one might think. Often times the pictures one can paint from these remains are very cloudy take Neanderthal subsistence patterns and diet for instance. Neanderthal subsistence has been under heated controversy from its infancy. The two camps have their talons well immersed in the flesh of the faunal and lithic fossil records. The prevailing theory has been that Neanderthal subsistence and acquisition of foodstuffs as primarily a scavenging life style. However, in light of recent discoveries and new isotopic analysis a review of the lithic and faunal evidence is necessary and many are revising their previous theories. The picture is dramatically changing, isotopic data along with Neanderthal contemporaries at the KRM site in Africa are providing archaeologists with a picture of an organized people who were at the top of their environments trophic pyramid. Recent research on hominid strategies for meat procurement has focused on the interpretations of bones recovered from archaeological sites. Binford?s 1984 analysis of faunal collections from Middle Stone Age deposits of the Klasies River Mouth Cave in South Africa identified carnivore activity and hominid scavenging of carnivore kills as major sources of the large mammal remains at the early Late Pleistocene site. From the skeletal parts represented and patterns of cut-marks on the bones, Binford concluded, ?in short, there is nothing in the data from Klasies River Mouth to suggest technologically-aided hunting, or even tactical hunting, as such? (1984). Although this interpretation of the Klasies River Mouth fauna is disputed by Klein (1986), Binford?s conclusion has been extended to the whole of hominid subsistence prior to the Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition of the Late Pleistocene (Binford 1984). For the sake of argument and our purpose of substantiating Neanderthals as top-level hunters, Binford?s extension will serve to illustrate the faunal evidence for scavenging vs. hunting."
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History of the Marksville culture, 2002.
An examination of the findings of early American archaeologists.
2,665 words (approx. 10.7 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 80.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at the discoveries of archaeologists of the first civilization in the Louisiana area. It discusses the geography of the time, the history of investigation, influences from other cultures, ceremonial findings and material culture that have been discovered by archaeologists.
From the Paper
"It is thought that man first arrived in Louisiana around 10,000 B.C. The delta of the Mississippi River began to form around 5,000 B.C., and man did not arrive in present day Jefferson Parish until about 500 B.C. The pre-history of human habitation in the delta region can be divided into five major cultural periods: Tchefuncte, Marksville, Troyville, Coles Creek, and the Plaquemine Period. In the lower Mississippi valley, all cultural activity on a Hopewellian horizon is historically subsumed under the term ?Marksville?. Beginning somewhere around 100 B.C., the resident Tchefuncte cultural system began to spread around the lower Mississippi valley. The Marksville Period overlaps with the end of the Tchefuncte spanning from around 200 B.C. to around 100 A.D. The Marksville culture spread into Louisiana from the Ohio Valley bringing primitive agriculture. The cultural changes are best seen in ceramics, which closely represent certain Hopewellian pottery of the Illinois valley, and mortuary practices, such as burial mounds. These cultural changes are from which the Marksville culture came to light. The time frame of the culture is 100B.C. to A.D. 400. The Troyville period succeeded the Marksville period from about A.D. 500 to about A.D. 1100. The Troyville culture is somewhat indistinctly defined and represents a transition between the Marksville Period and the later Coles Creek and Plaquemine Periods."
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The Search for Answers, 2001.
This essay looks at the relationship between archaeology and forensic crime scene investigations.
1,800 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 6 sources, APA, $ 57.95
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Abstract
This paper presents a detailed discussion about the forensic sciences when it comes to the process and philosophy regarding archaeology and crime scene investigations. The writer examines terms and processes to answer questions about criminal investigation from an archaeological point of view.
From the Paper
"Turn on the television on any night around the nation and one can find a crime show. We are inundated with crime shows, real time shows and law and order shows. Each show has a victim, suspects, a search scene and then the trial all wrapped up in a neat little time frame. If we watch closely we often see elements of the forensic science in action but mostly its pan shots, evidence found and bagged then on to the next scene. In real life however the discovery and search of a crime scene is much more involved. There are laws that must be followed and procedures that are handled with care to insure the scene nor the evidence becomes tainted or destroyed."
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Wells' Fiction to Fantastic Reality, 2001.
This paper is a transcript of an audio recording of Wells' fiction to fantastic reality.
1,000 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 35.95
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Abstract
This paper is a first person transcript about the Aztec culture. It is a journey through time describing in-depth the speaker's findings about the Aztecs. It also details the speakers' journey to Tenochtitlan and Nahautl, Mexico. It is an historical documentation of this journey through time and cultures which took place in 1438 AD.
From the Paper
"I am now preparing to travel to the year 1438 AD to gain a more personal knowledge of Aztec culture. I have long been fascinated with Aztec civilization, and because of the advanced technology of this incredible machine, I will now be able to see for myself what life was like in the time before the Conquistadors. I have preset my destination to a small secluded valley outside of Tenachtitlan, the capital city of the Aztec Empire, and what will eventually become Mexico City.
"As I wait for the complicated systems of my craft to cycle through their stages, I let my mind drift back to when I was a child, enthralled by the science fiction novel The Time Machine. "If only you could have known, Aitch Gee", I muse to myself.
"All systems are now cycled up and ready to engage?..Signed Off."
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Stonehenge, 2001.
A look at the legend of Stonehenge.
1,100 words (approx. 4.4 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 38.95
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Abstract
This paper examines in brief the history of this monumental stone circle, its construction and the myths that have grown up around it especially during the 20th century. The paper concludes that the monument remains so compelling in large measure because we know so little about it.
From the Paper
"Stonehenge, a monumental circular setting of large standing stones surrounded by a circular earthwork, was constructed in several phases about eight miles north of Salisbury in Wiltshire, England. It was begun as long as 5000 years ago with the outer bank, the ditch, and the Aubrey holes encircling the main construction dating from probably the late Stone Age or early Bronze Age (circa 2000BC). The main structure dates from between the early Bronze Age and the end of the Iron Age. The sarsen - or sandstone - stones date from the about 1500BC (Chippindale 18)."
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Mayans, 2001.
This paper looks at the history of the Mayan culture.
2,125 words (approx. 8.5 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 66.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at the field of archeology and how it has evolved over the years. The author uses Mayan culture as a case study in order to illustrate the advances that have been made in archeology over the centuries. A brief history of archeology in North America is given before detailing the process that the archaeologists used in uncovering the history of the Mayans. It discusses the tools the archaeologists have changed because of scientific advances, and how this has disproved many of the early theories about Mayan culture.
From the Paper
"Early excavators and scholars of Mayan life also determined that intimately linked to Mayan religion was the impressive development of astronomical studies ans mathematics, including the use of zero. Mayan astronomy underlay a complex calendrical system that featured an accurately determined solar year (18 months of 20 days, plus an unlucky 5-day period), a sacred year of 260 days (13 cycles of 20 named days), and a variety of longer cycles culminating in the Long Count, based on a zero date in 3114 BC. Mayan astronomers compiled precise tables of positions for the Moon and Venus and were able to predict solar eclipses."
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Temple Of Pharaoh Ramesses I, 2001.
This paper is an historical and archaeological evaluation of the reign of Ramesses I.
955 words (approx. 3.8 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 33.95
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Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to introduce, discuss, and analyze the temple of Pharaoh Ramesses I built by his son Seti I. Some of the areas discussed include the Temple of Osiris and its significance in history. Special attention is given to the figures carved into the walls of the temple, as they are examined in detail in order to give us a better understanding of their importance in Ramesses life and times. The hieroglyphics found on the walls are also detailed and analyzed.
From the Paper
"The largest figure is Horus, the son of Isis and Osiris, with a falcon head. He holds an ankh, in one hand, which is a sacred representation of life, often associated with Isis and Osiris. Some call it "the original cross." (Okara, 2001). He also holds up his hand as if to protect his father. Horus ruled the world of the living, so he's here to watch over the living as they give their gifts to his father. Horus is larger than the cult figures of Osiris, but there are two figures of Osiris, and only one Horus, which again brings out Osiris' dominance."
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Archaeological Dating Methods: A Case Study, 2002.
This paper discusses four major methods of archaeological dating: stratigraphy, dendrochronology, obsidian hydration dating, and radiocarbon dating.
2,380 words (approx. 9.5 pages), 15 sources, MLA, $ 72.95
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Abstract
The paper introduces archaeology, and explains that the concept of dating is central to the science of archaeology. Two broad categories of dating, relative and absolute, are introduced, and four major specific types of dating are presented to the reader; stratigraphy, dendrochronology, obsidian hydration dating, and radiocarbon dating. Each of the four methods are discussed in great detail, each with a closing paragraph devoted to the underlying problems with that particular method. For example, the section on stratigraphy begins with a brief history of the method itself, and introduces such concepts as the law of superposition, temporal sequences of data within stratified deposits, context evaluation, and determining age through the relative position of superimposed artifacts. The negatives of stratigraphy are then discussed, and include deformation, overlapping and reverse stratigraphy, and the method is evaluated on the whole. This format is then applied to the other three types of dating discussed. Finally, a concluding paragraph states that although the four types of dating discussed are infinitely valuable to archaeologists all over the world, there are still problems associated with each that need to be accounted for when using them to address the age of fossilized remains and other artifacts.
From the Paper
"Archaeology is the study of past human cultures, and archaeologists must uncover and interpret material remains in order to reconstruct past ways of life. To understand the purposes of these remains, Archaeologists have the task of constructing a chronology of prehistory, using various dating methods. ?Without knowing the age of materials, little can be said about the activity that made them part of the site (David L. Webster, Susan Toby Evans & William T. Sanders, 1993: 128).? Dating is defined as the placement in time of events relative to one another or to any established scale of temporal measurement (Jeffrey S. Dean, 1981: 375). Dating methods used by Archaeologist incorporate the scientific method and have the advantages of objectification, application to isolated cultural sequences, and an expanded span of human prehistory for which an absolute chronology can be built (Keith Brannigan, 1974: 100-101). Scientific methods of dating are invaluable for the prehistoric periods and have revolutionized the archaeologists? ideas about the absolute chronology of the prehistoric culture sequence (Brannigan, 1974: 101), yet each of these scientific methods has many difficulties. Dating techniques fall into two categories?relative and absolute?and include the following: seriation, ceramic dating, potassium argon dating, thermoluminescence dating, archaeomagnetic dating, fission track dating, stratigraphy, dendrochronology, obsidian hydration dating, and radiocarbon dating. This paper will discuss the latter four methods, with an emphasis on the shortcomings of each."
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Scientific Artifact Analysis, 2002.
This paper describes various scientific means of examining archeological artifacts.
1,810 words (approx. 7.2 pages), 10 sources, MLA, $ 58.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the use of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR), Petrographic analysis, microscopy and radiography, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and infrared spectroscopy (IR) in examining archeological remains. The author includes an application of these methods. Pictures and graphs are included.
From the Paper
"There are many ways one can study archaeological materials. This paper will focus on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (NMR), Petrographic analysis, microscopy and radiography, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), and infrared spectroscopy (IR). All are part of a process that helps to identify many materials, which in turn provide answers to parts of the past. They are all very useful tools for the examination of archaeological artifacts and many other things."
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Systems Theory and Archaeology, 2002.
This paper looks at the movement towards a post-modern construction of landscape, feminism and capitalist research in archaeology.
1,465 words (approx. 5.9 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 48.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the history of archaeology, and the impact that social historians have had in shaping its direction and definition. In order to present his case, the author looks at three different books on archaeology, both ancient and modern, by social historians. The author points out the strengths and weaknesses of these publications, which in some cases, are long on speculation, and short on facts.
From the Paper
"This is not to say the Patterson's book is completely skewed, however. He situates archaeology into a wider historical context and acknowledges the influence of outside society- that, archaeology as a field did not, in fact, 'pull itself up by its own bootstraps. As an example of this he sites the first impact of the WPA during the great depression, and the larger affect it had after World War II when the GI Bill allowed many soldiers who had previously worked with the WPA to pursue a full career in Archaeology. He also traces the class structure of archaeology from its beginning as an aristocratic and upper middle class phenomena to its situation in middle class academia in the 1950's. Finally, he follows the fields movement from private collectors, to universities, to Federal government, and its final gradual privatization under the expanding clauses of United States historic sites protection."
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The True Nature of Cannibalism: A Tribute to the Deceased, 2001.
This paper examines the historical realities and significance of cannibalism and cannibalistic peoples.
2,085 words (approx. 8.3 pages), 6 sources, MLA, $ 65.95
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Abstract
Using historical evidence of cannibalism existence, this paper identifies different forms and practices, and explains the motives for such behaviors.
From the Paper
"For millions of years, the majority of humans and their ancestors around the world have eaten meat, derived from a countless number of animals. However, the majority of these people have avoided one particular kind of meat: human flesh. For a human to knowingly eat the flesh of his own kind has been taboo to the most extreme definition of the term. Even the thought of it provokes a deep-rooted, enculturated repulsiveness that is so powerful it has actually prevented modern humans from eating remains of dead people for the sole purpose of survival (Barker, Hulme, and Iversen 1998:37). In other words, they would rather die than eat the meat of another person. The general practice of eating human flesh, anthropophagy, commonly referred to as cannibalism, has always been a subject full of controversy and debate. Hundreds of scientific studies have been published on the subject, but few have focused on the anthropological reasons for its supposed occurrence. In order to understand the true nature of cannibalism, it is necessary to examine it from a number of different perspectives. First, the historical evidence indicating that it took place must be carefully analyzed and interpreted. Second, the different forms of cannibalism must be identified and defined, and examples of their historical presence must be cited. Lastly, the motives of each type need to be explained, detailing the various tendencies of cannibalistic peoples and their practices. Only then will the appropriate significance of cannibalism and its existence become clear."
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A Critical Review of the Glenrose Cannery Site, 2002.
This paper looks at how the zoo archaeology of the site has been used to determine seasonality, diet, etc.
2,120 words (approx. 8.5 pages), 4 sources, $ 66.95
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Abstract
This paper analyzes a study done of the Glenrose Cannery Site in the 1970s. The various excavations at the site between 1969 and 1973 are discussed in detail, and the results are analysed and evaluated.
From the paper:
"The analysis of fish, pollen, shellfish, mammalian and avian remains and artifacts from the site were studied to find ?the origins of the densely populated culturally complex, maritime adaptation of the Pacific Northwest Coast?, and ?the origin of the Locarna Bach and Marpole phases in the last millenium B.C.? (Matson, 1976) Little is known about this and views range from Asiatio origins to local development. (Matson, 1976) ?Thus is was hoped that the investigation of the Glenrose midden would shed some light on the origins of the unique Northwest Coast pattern by detailing the subsistence strategies related to pre-Locarno material on the edge of the Fraser Delta.?
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A History of Language and Writing Systems, 2001.
An interesting look at the development of systems of writing starting with the Sumerian people.
1,530 words (approx. 6.1 pages), 7 sources, $ 50.95
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Abstract
In this paper the author looks back in time to the origins of writing and notes and shows that there is new archaeological evidence to suggest that the cuneiform system of writing existed even prior to the Sumer. The author then moves on to examine Egyptian forms for writing and various Semitic languages.
From the paper:
?More than 300 clay tablets with a variety of images on them have already been discovered by Dreyer. Among the symbols found on the tablets are scorpions with trees, scorpions with plants, stylized birds, dogs and fish and various other decorative plant-forms?.
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The Toltecs - The First Great Mesoamerican Civilization, 2001.
A history of Meso-America, with an in-depth study of the Toltecs.
2,200 words (approx. 8.8 pages), 9 sources, $ 68.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at the world of the Toltecs, focusing on how they were shaped and how they helped to shape a larger Meso-American cultural grouping that shared a number of salient cultural features. The author also makes particular mention of Toltecs impact on the Aztecs.
From the paper:
?The rise of the Toltec civilization did however mark a distinct turn in some sense because after the rise of the organized Toltec empire the peoples and rulers of this region of Mexico would be more deeply and more consistently marked by a militaristic orientation than those people (culturally related as they were) that preceded them, as Bernal argues?.
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Mass Extinctions, 2001.
This paper compares and contrasts the Permian and Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinctions.
1,400 words (approx. 5.6 pages), 2 sources, $ 46.95
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Abstract
This paper takes a look at the Permian and Cretaceous-Tertiary periods of life on Earth - pre-historic forms of life from sea creatures to land and air creatures. During both of these periods, mass extinction occurred and a comparison of these two extinctions is documented in this paper.
From the paper:
"From the perspective of daily human life, we often think of tragedy on the level of individual death and destruction, and the concept of mass extinction as being confined to a species or at worst, an ecosystem. However, over the course of the existence of the earth, the planet has weathered many greater catastrophes. Geologists must take a much longer-term perspective of catastrophe when studying extinction. This paper will compare and contrast the Permian and Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinctions."
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Reviewing "Women in Ancient Egypt", 2002.
This paper discusses the public and private lives and roles of ancient Egyptian women.
1,225 words (approx. 4.9 pages), 1 source, $ 41.95
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Abstract
This essay discusses the importance of women in ancient Egyptian society in Gay Robin's book "Women in Ancient Egypt". The author examines strong royal women such as Nefertiti, and Nefertiti, and discusses women in Egyptian art. The paper also looks at the subordination of females in Egyptian society, but also how they were honored by their families.
From the Paper:
"Dr. Robins, curator of Egyptian art for the Carlos Museum, reevaluates the roles and importance of women in ancient Egyptian society as depicted in the art and written records of the time. The special role of women in religious rites is also surveyed. Women in Ancient Egypt is a book that shows us what the archaeological riches of Egypt really say about how the women of Egypt lived, both in the public and private eye."??
From the Paper
"Dr. Robins, curator of Egyptian art for the Carlos Museum , reevaluates the roles and importance of women in ancient Egyptian society as depicted in the art and written records of the time. The special role of women in religious rites is also surveyed. Women in Ancient Egypt is a book that shows us what the archaeological riches of Egypt really say about how the women of Egypt lived, both in the public and private eye."
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For Humans, Culture is Biology, 2001.
This paper discusses the evolution of the human brain and how intelligence and culture are determined by biological factors.
1,320 words (approx. 5.3 pages), 10 sources, $ 44.95
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Abstract
This paper examines human culture and how intelligence is determined by biological factors. The author discusses the origins of the human brain, and how it evolved into a tool of intelligence more than two million years ago, and how societal cultures are learned and shared.
From the Paper
"According to Wolpoff, ?while a human culture cannot be linked to a particular biology, or vice versa, for humans culture is biology.? Wolpoff, 1999, p.164. This statement means that development of a culture is dependent on biologically determined factors. The most important reason for the development of culture is adaptation for survival under changing environment, which in turn requires, on the one hand, natural selection, and on the other making choices, rather than merely acting on instinct. Intelligence, needed for the purpose of making choices has been the product of biological factors. It should be noted that even though some animals such as wild dogs also live in societies, only humans have developed culture. Culture developed side by side with the evolution of certain physical features in the human species, Homo sapiens that made intelligence possible."
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