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Beginnings of Life on Early Earth, 2005.
A look at different life origin theories.
1,320 words (approx. 5.3 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 44.95
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Abstract
This paper presents a brief overview of different theories of the origins of life on earth. The paper explains the naturalistic approach, the chemical evolution theory, and the comet theory. The paper also examines some of the weaknesses in these theories and concludes with the author's opinion that the comet theory is the most plausible theory for explaining the origins of life on earth.
From the Paper
"Questions related to the origins of life on Earth have always been a cause for scientific investigation and suppositions. If we refer to the naturalistic approach, than the evolutionary process is a justified explanation of changes and transformations that have occurred. This is a theory that we can successfully apply to the appearance of life on Earth and to the chemical processes that have made it possible."
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The Gaia Theory, 2005.
A look at the theory proposed by British atmospheric chemist, James Lovelock, which characterizes earth as a complex living organism rather than merely an inanimate host for the many terrestrial life forms dependent on it for sustenance.
1,643 words (approx. 6.6 pages), 5 sources, APA, $ 53.95
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Abstract
This paper explains and examines the Gaia Theory, which proposes that the earth is itself a tremendously large and complex super-organism, comprising all of the other life forms dependant upon it in very much the same fashion that the human body comprises the many trillions of individual living cellular organisms that, collectively, constitute a human being. The paper first details some of the criticisms as well as the support for Lovelock's theory, outlines the essential elements of the theory, and then provides a critical analysis of the theory.
From the Paper
"In the 1960?s, James Lovelock, a British atmospheric chemist, was engaged in research commissioned by the National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) in the United States. Specifically, the studies were intended to develop a method for determining reliably whether or not biological life existed on Mars. Part of Lovelock?s work involved analyzing certain elements of Earth?s atmospheric properties and mechanisms, in order to understand how a planet teeming with biological life might be differentiated accurately from interplanetary distances from a planet completely devoid of biological life (Enteractive, 1995)."
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Factorial Ecology.
A look at factorial ecology versus radiocentric explanations of urban development.
997 words (approx. 4.0 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 35.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how factorial ecology continues to be of interest to those conducting marketing research, although radiocentric approaches tend to be more ?en vogue? at the moment, especially when considering the development of new, as opposed to existing, city populations, such as in the American South, or in cities undergoing profound ethnic changes unprecedented in their history, such as Toronto. It looks at how cities undergoing physical transformations, such as New York after September 11th, also offer uncharted waters for radiocentric explanations as well. It concludes that factorial ecology?s more coherent, if not always more accurate, sociological analysis is not only seductive, but also often instructive for students attempting to make a more coherent theoretical narrative about the ideological reasons for a city?s shifting and changing image.
Outline
Introduction
What Are the Factors that Predict Which Model is Explanatory?
What Are the Weaknesses of Each Model?
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Toronto is a mosaic-like city of ethnic and regional composition, one reason that radiocentric explanations are fairly popular in understanding its development. As with New York, the map-like spreading out of different communities are often instructive to how certain ethnicities have become part of the nation?s fabric and to what extent they participate in a city?s centrality or sectors of prosperity or poverty. However, once a city grows in age and second and third generation members become more integrated and dispersed within a city?s fold, radiocentric explanations become more difficult to offer, unless specific communities continue built around specific urban industries, such as the city?s garment district, or, to use another example, the case of Silicon Valley and its outer-lying suburbs, where an hitherto empty area of growth becomes filled because of its location around a certain nexus of the computer industry."
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Radiometric Methods of Dating Fossils, 2004.
An exploration of how carbon-14 and uranium-238 are used frequently in today?s scientific community to analyze the dates of fossils.
1,427 words (approx. 5.7 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 47.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how both carbon-14 and uranium-238 are used to date fossils and how both methods are based on measuring the decay that has occurred in these elements. It looks at how carbon-14 dating is used for organic material, plants and animals, while uranium-238 is used primarily for geographic formations. It also discusses how both methods of dating are subject to potential sample contamination and, therefore, inaccurate readings; the addition of foreign material in both types of samples can provide either younger or older results, dependent on the material.
From the Paper
"Radioactive elements decay at unique rates, dependant on the isotope. This rate of decay is known as half-lives, it is the time necessary for ? of the atoms to decay in a particular element. The decay follows a geometric scale, in that in the first half-life of an element, ? of the atoms decay, yet in the second half-life, ? of those remaining decay, meaning a ? of the original atoms decay, and so forth. By measuring this decay, and knowing the half life of an element, scientists can date a sample."
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Tornadoes on Campus, 2004.
This paper is a risk analysis and management assessment of a tornado striking a university in the Midwest.
880 words (approx. 3.5 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 31.95
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Abstract
This paper stresses that, even if you have never been through the ?tornado experience?, you can still be on the lookout in the sky for a greenish or greenish-black color common to approaching tornadoes. The author points out that one should be especially wary if local weather or disaster authorities have issued a tornado watch, which means that a tornado is possible within a narrowly-specified period; a tornado warning is even more serious. The paper relates that, no matter how many tornadoes you have suffered through at home or on your farm, it is particularly important in multi-storied, crowded buildings to move to the interior of the structure, preferably a stairwell or hallway.
Table of Contents
Step 1: Awareness
Step 2: See a Tornado in the Sky
Step 3: The Tornado Strikes
Step 4: What to Do before a Tornado Strikes to Mitigate Risk
From the Paper
"It is helpful to be aware of what a tornado is, meteorologically and chronologically speaking. There are four main stages in a tornado's life. These are the organization stage, the mature stage, the shrinking stage, and the decaying stage. In the organization stage, the weather conspires to create the classic, funnel-shaped cloud. The mature stage means that the tornado cloud is not at its largest size. ?The funnel then decreases to a thin column in the shrinking stage, and becomes fragmented and very disorganized in the decaying stage, although it is still a destructive funnel.? "
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Witchcraft and Science, 2004.
Compares the Salem witch trials to the experience of those in modern society who are attempting to break into a career field dominated by one particular caste.
4,423 words (approx. 17.7 pages), 12 sources, APA, $ 116.95
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Abstract
This paper compares at the experience of women accused of witchcraft in Europe in the 17th century to the experience of women in contemporary society trying to break into the field of science. The paper contends that women of the 17th century, who practiced medicine through their knowledge of herbs and natural healing methods, were perceived as a threat to the male-dominated field of medicine and society at large. It is also argued in this paper that women in science today are faced with the same set of beliefs and barriers that held the women of the 17th century back from their equal status.
From the Paper
"Whenever one group of people obtain a majority interest in social order over another particular group, or over all other groups, the cries of outrage and abuse will soon be heard from both the dominant and the oppressed. The oppressed people of the group often have a legitimate point of contention. Possibly they were not the fastest to secure economic prominence, and therefore as the poor, they now need assistance to keep up with the leaders. Perhaps they simple lost a number of competitions, and became the follower rather than the leaders. In any case, those who are now in the position of following eventually begin to question the established social order. In order to bring about change, they often cry ?discrimination? or ?prejudice? of some other emotionally charged epithet in order to gain the public?s support for their self induced plight."
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The Tornado, 2004.
This paper examines the mechanism of a tornado.
805 words (approx. 3.2 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 28.95
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Abstract
This paper explains that tornado observation and study date back more than three centuries. The author points out that the mechanism of a tornado is relatively simple when compared to the damage it does; a thunderstorm that has air pushed up into its storm over and over again provides the stage for tornado formation. The paper relates that, with storm chasers on the ground, airplanes in the sky, and current technology, the world knows more than ever before about the scariest natural disaster on earth.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Background
Mechanism
Conclusion
From the Paper
"Tornadoes form during the updraft stage of a thunderstorm. The updraft air begins to rotate and when this rotation occurs it forms something called a vortex. Wind shear is when the wind speed changes and the direction and height change. Wind shear is what maintains the vortex formation. While this occurs the rising air and up currents that are inside the cloud flow move in direction of the wind. This can all happen many miles above the earth while those below are innocent to its formation."
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Geology of the Great Lakes, 2002.
An overview of the geologic history of the Great Lakes region.
2,400 words (approx. 9.6 pages), 9 sources, APA, $ 73.95
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Abstract
During the Ice Age, a great deal of the northern part of North America was engulfed in glaciers. As the climate warmed, these great ice caps advanced and receded many times, creating a complex and diverse geography in what is now the Great Lakes region. This paper discusses the various geological processes that formed the features and natural resources of the Great Lakes, as well as provides a summary of the geologic history of the area.
From the Paper
"Fast-flowing rivers, glacial ice, and the pounding of waves against the shore occurred over the next 300 million years, wearing down most of the mountains. There was no vegetation protection to slow down these geological processes. As a result, the mountains disintegrated.
The eroded rock debris built up as thick layers of sand, gravel, silt and clay eventually transformed into sedimentary rock. Thus, volcanic activity was the major geological process in the Great Lakes area. Gradually the sand grains cemented together forming sandstone, which can be found in all the lakes."
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Groundwater and Seawater, 2004.
An analysis of the relationship between groundwater and seawater.
8,338 words (approx. 33.4 pages), 48 sources, MLA, $ 177.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses the interaction between groundwater and seawater and thoroughly analyzes the condition of seawater intrusion in groundwater. It outlines the adverse effects of the seawater-groundwater interaction and proposes methods through which this situation can be solved. It also highlights various mathematical equations, which are used to reach analytical solutions. The trend of fresh water, seawater, and groundwater are discussed to scrutinize each water body behavior with respect to one another. The effects of seawater upon groundwater, contaminants, and soil are also judged. The paper also emphasizes some true-to-life examples of various countries that are facing these problems with their groundwater tables and taking appropriate measure ,such as implanting groundwater-replenishing systems in order to preserve their sources of water. Sources of contamination and their effects are also discussed in detail.
From the Paper
"As ground waters are present almost every where, the interactions between ground waters and seawater rely greatly upon the physiographic and climatic milieu of the landscape. As a result of tidal fluctuation, ground waters and seawater are always in consistent communication with each other. This has given rise to various hydrological, engineering and environmental problems. ?These include coastal aquifer parameter estimation, beach de-watering, marine retaining structures, and seawater intrusion fluctuations?."
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Staten Island, 2003.
A history of the bedrock movement that is thought to have caused the creation of Staten Island.
3,101 words (approx. 12.4 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 90.95
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Abstract
This paper looks at the history of the land that lies beneath Staten Island, which was created over several hundred million years via the recurrent disintegration and smashing of continents. It then looks at the current geography and demography of the area, including population trends of the area.
From the Paper
"Around 500 million years ago, there was nothing called the Staten Island. What had in existence had been the continental chunks and some ocean basins. One of these continental chunks was ancient North America, which was named Laurentia. At this particular juncture in the history of the globe Laurentia was situated at the equator. Other chief continental chunks that found existence at the juncture are Baltica ? ancient Europe, Gondwanaland consisting of the ancient Africa, South America, Australia, Antarctica, and India, chunks of Asia, and a few micro continents. At the time of the previous 500 million years these continental chunks drifted around to their current geographic positions. (The Geology of Staten Island)."
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Tungurahua Volcano - Ecuador, 2002.
Study of the Tungurahua Volcano of Ecuador, which has been in an active volcanic state since October 1999.
1,199 words (approx. 4.8 pages), 2 sources, MLA, $ 41.95
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Abstract
This study provides a geographical description of the Tungurahua Volcano of Ecuador and describes the nature of its volcanic activity. The paper also explores the risks to inhabitants living in close proximity to the volcano and some of the measures taken to protect them. The paper concludes by examining what is being done to assist those affected by the volcano and probable solutions to the threat it poses.
From the Paper
"The Tungurahua volcano is categorized as a strato-volcano reaching a height of 5016 meters. With a nickname of "The Black Giant", the mountain has a 600 feet wide crater, with most of the mountain covered in snow. Its geographical status shows that it lies some 25 kilometers east of Ambato, Ecuador?s 4th largest city. The slopes of the Tungurahua volcano are primarily used for the local agriculture sector and a number of small villages including a town called Banos which cradles the mountain from both the western and northern sides."
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Earthquakes, 2002.
An overview of the study of earthquakes produced by the San Andreas Fault in Southern California.
1,628 words (approx. 6.5 pages), 1 source, MLA, $ 53.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how earthquakes produced by the San Andreas Fault in Southern California have been a topic of interest for many researchers and how limitations on conventional radiocarbon analyses impeded the research and were a major barrier to progress in paleoseismology. It looks at how, recently, newer technology and larger samples have enabled researchers to date the quakes with greater precision. It review the article, ?A More Precise Chronology of Earthquakes Produced by the San Andreas Fault in Southern California? (Sieh, et al, 1989), which shows the results of one such study and outlines the major strengths and weaknesses of the latest measurements.
From the Paper
"This method is much more accurate than dates previously given. Previously, typical small proportion counters and accelerator mass spectrometric analyses were used, which produced a higher year error possibility. Since the methods for radiocarbon analysis have improved with this use of counters with low background noise, the dates given in this paper are much more precise. In addition, the most recent study used larger sample sizes, longer counting time, and a more precise way to convert radiocarbon age to calendar dates. Finally, better controls were in place, as were better statistical techniques for sample extraction (Sieh, et al, 1989)."
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Ancient Michigan, 2002.
Discusses the mammals who lived in the ancient Michigan basin area.
2,885 words (approx. 11.5 pages), 12 sources, APA, $ 85.95
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Abstract
Twenty thousand years ago, mile-thick glacial ice sheets that extended from Canada to the Ohio River covered Michigan and most of northern North America. It took more than 12,000 years for the ice to melt, leaving Michigan a glacially scarred landscape with the Great Lakes. This paper focuses on the ancient Michigan basin area and presents a brief geological history of the area. It discusses how the mammals that lived during the Ice Age, such as mammoths, horses, camels and saber-toothed tigers adapted to their environment over the years, with some eventually becoming extinct.
From the Paper
"The sperm whale represents a prehistoric carnivore that still exists today and Michigan boasts one of the largest fossils from a prehistoric sperm whale. Even during prehistoric times, the Great Lakes as we know them now were larger and connected to the Atlantic Ocean. This may be one reason why the sperm whale survived. Today, they are found far from land in very deep waters, which probably had been there environment during the Pleistocene Epoch."
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Alfred Lothar Wegener, 2002.
This paper gives a brief biography of Alfred Wegener, his theory of continental drift and other contributions to the world of science.
1,489 words (approx. 6.0 pages), 4 sources, MLA, $ 49.95
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Abstract
This paper begins by providing an overview of the early life and education of scientist Alfred Wegener. It then discusses his initial idea of the Theory of Continental Drift and how this developed. The writer then explores different evidence for the theory and examines the concept of 'panagea'. The paper discusses reactions to Wegener's theory as well as support. It concludes with a discussion on his final expeditions and what he hoped to achieve.
From the Paper
"Alfred Lothar Wegener (1880-1930), German meteorologist, Arctic explorer and a brilliant interdisciplinary scientist, is best known as for his theory of ?continental displacement? (that became famous, later, as the theory of continental drift). Since the technological means for proving the theory had not yet been developed and the idea was a radical departure from the scientific thinking of the time, Wegener?s theory was widely rejected during his lifetime. After gradual accumulation of evidence in support of the idea, the theory finally gained acceptance in the early sixties."
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Mount Saint Helens, 2002.
An overview of the eruption of Mount St. Helens volocano in 1980.
950 words (approx. 3.8 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 33.95
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Abstract
There are approximately 500 active volcanoes world wide and a couple dozen of those erupt every year. Humans have learned to live around volcanoes, for the most part. They have been avoided, feared and even worshipped for millennia. However, that by no means guarantees that humans and the environments that humans depend on, will not come into harm?s way. The paper shows that as the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 proves, even with advanced warning and strict security measures, nature can take its toll. The paper describes the aftermath of the explosion, where about 60 people and countless plants and animals died and it would be almost two decades before the surrounding area returned to a stable and comparative ecosystem. The paper shows that if two decades sounds like a long time, one need only keep in mind that scientists were actually pleasantly surprised with the rate of recovery.
From the Paper
"It would be a while before the people could breathe freely after this natural disaster. It would be even longer before the world healed itself. Contrary to what one might expect, conservation efforts to help nature along were often doomed to failure. No duplicated ecosystem could replace a lost one. However, scientists eventually learned that the ecosystem was self-correcting. Some things had survived the lava, like small fungi too small to be thoroughly trapped and destroyed. Small animals often survived as well. Over time, when left to its own devices, it seemed that nature worked to preserve itself intact. For example, insects that conservations might think would be harmful killed many surviving trees, but the fallen trees provided prime shelter and a budding environment for other survivors."
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Ocean Tides, 2002.
A discussion of the causes and effects of ocean tides.
1,333 words (approx. 5.3 pages), 8 sources, APA, $ 44.95
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Abstract
This paper examines the topic of ocean tides, the periodic rise and fall of the ocean waters due to the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on the surface of the earth. It looks at what causes tides, what are high and low tides, the different types of tides, the phenomenon of tidal currents and waves, the effect of tides on the coastlines and on fishing and how tides can be harnessed for energy. It also discusses other areas in which knowledge of tidal data can prove useful.
Outline
What Causes Tides?
High and Low Tides
Lunar and Solar Tides
Tidal Period
Spring and Neap Tides
Diurnal, Semi-Diurnal and Mixed Tides
Effect of Tides on Coastlines
Effect of Tides on Fishing
Tides in Gulf of Mexico and the Texas Gulf Coast Regions
Tidal Energy
Other Applications
From the Paper
"The gravitational force of the earth at its surface acts in an inward direction towards its center. This force keeps the ocean (and other) waters confined to the surface. At the same time, the gravitational force of the moon and the sun exert an outward pull on the surface of the earth. Since the earth solid surface is a rigid body, it remains relatively unaffected by this ?pull.? However, the ocean waters, being liquid and less rigid, are physically pulled outwards towards the moon and the sun by their gravitational force. This outward pull is not uniform over the earth?s surface since the gravitational force of the moon (or the sun) acts on the side of the earth facing it. Hence ?high tide? is produced in the ocean waters by the "heaping" action resulting from the horizontal flow of water towards regions of the earth facing the moon or the sun."
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"Isaac?s Storm", 2002.
A discussion of the effects which the 1900 storm had on the development of Galveston City from a business perspective.
1,251 words (approx. 5.0 pages), 5 sources, MLA, $ 42.95
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Abstract
This paper examines how Galveston City was devastated by one of the worst ever storms to strike America on September 8, 1900 claiming the lives of more than 8000 people and the total destruction of properties. It looks at how in the book ?Isaac?s Storm,? Erik Larson describes how Isaac Monroe Cline, a chief staff of the American meteorological department studied the progress of this devastating storm and how it had a destructive effect on the business climate of this once commercially vibrant city. It analyzes the effects the storm had on the development of the city as well its economy and industry.
Outline
Galveston City (Before the Storm)
Impact of Hurricane
Insurance Sector
The Current Economic Situation
Tourism
The Galveston Port
Conclusion
From the Paper
"The impact of the hurricane on the corporate sector was not the least in any way. The Galveston economy was never fully restored or recovered from the terrible disaster. Galveston, which so far surpassed Houston in attracting business investors, suffered a big loss of confidence on the part of the investors. Oil business flourished in neighboring Houston and this lured the international business community away from Galveston. Furthermore the city which was serving as one of the busiest trading ports in the whole of the United States was experiencing a virtual trading dead lock. Galveston, which was a leading port in cotton exports, suffered a severe loss in that sector also. The greatly successful cotton trade was drastically affected because of the total ruin of the Galveston port. The city lost its position as the leading cotton trader in the country and this affected its economy in a big way."
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Canada and Glaciations, 2002.
An insight into glaciations and their contribution to Canada?s environment and appeal.
838 words (approx. 3.4 pages), 3 sources, MLA, $ 29.95
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Abstract
This paper discusses how glaciations, huge sheets of ice that cover huge areas of land, have made significant contributions to many aspects of Canada?s environment. It looks at how today, glaciers are tourist attractions in mountainous areas throughout Canada, bringing in millions of dollars in tourism funds. In addition, glaciers are a natural resource and people in Canada are able to harness the power of these frozen streams. It shows that without Canada?s intense glaciations, there would be less water for wildlife, for agriculture and for hydroelectric power.
From the Paper
"While glaciers are recognized as important additions to Canada?s natural beauty, many say that they present great risks to the country . Scientists believe that the gradual decay of the southern edges of the Arctic permafrost will drastically alter surface water drainage patterns and increase the land?s instability. As a result, there may be large disruptions to pipelines, rail lines, roads, and other facilities. The effect on ice roads could be very negative. Built across frozen wetlands and lakes, these roads provide an important supply link to many remote communities and provide access to large areas of timber in the boreal forest."
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